Machine language in a computer is the means through which a central processing unit is instructed how to pursue a series of operations in the sensori-motor environment of the central processing unit. Any machine language presumes a very specific architecture of processor, memory and sometimes extensional elements, all of which determine this basic sensori-motor environment; indeed, machine language is the closest discourse mode that one can enter into with a computer. The general interpretation of machine language instructions is accomplished through a central processing unit that uses a program instruction counter to indicate the instruction to be interpreted (executed) by the central processing unit. A typical architecture will call for the instruction indicated by the program instruction counter to be interpreted and then the program instruction counter is updated so that it points at the next instruction; the full set of instructions is known as a program.

The sensori-motor experience of a central processing unit can be reduced to the manipulation of switched binary elements. That is, the computer’s world is comprised of ones and zeros, and its sensory system is oriented toward differentiating a one from a zero and subsequently manipulating strings of ones and zeros. What, one might ask, can be accomplished with such a restrictive environment? Well, pretty much anything within the realm of human interactions, because their complete environment can be represented through the metaphorical manipulation of objects that can in turn be represented by strings of ones and zeros. In short, a computer must be able to locate the position of a binary object; tell if it’s a one or a zero; switch to different sets of instructions based on what the test determines; and, change a one to a zero or a zero to a one. With this instruction set as the basic lever, one can move the world. While this seems an ambitious statement, it has been indeed proven that all computer programs resolve to such a humble origin, called a Turing machine, as we’ve discussed in Chapter 4.

One of the first epiphanies for just about anyone that learns computer programming is that of metaphorical representation and extension. This generally takes the form of a rather common experience. Mid-way through their first basic programming course, many people seek to define a number of sub-programs that provide a metaphorical context for the common programming problems thus far encountered. In other words, they begin to extract a number of common threads within the problems that they see and they seek to provide a common programming solution to these problems. The rather natural assumption is then to believe that these common solutions will have general utility to others working on the same problems. Unfortunately, at this stage of their development, most programmers tend to imbue these solutions to common problems with their own specific way of thinking; the solutions embody more of the individual person’s cognitive processes than a common view towards many different problems.

Working in machine language requires the programmer to identify procedural operations through binary numeric codes. The addresses of memory locations that contain information to be accessed and processed by these procedural operations must also be identified through binary codes. This type of language is fraught with opportunities for error; it is easy to give the wrong instruction and it is easy to give the wrong memory address. Consequently, a shift in language structure towards that of human natural languages is a positive step, even if it is only a very tiny shift. Such a translation is provided by assembly languages.

Assembly language is a slightly higher-level language than machine language. Different assembly languages are typically found for different computer platforms. Generally, an assembly language is very tightly coupled to the machine language for a particular processor. It uses slightly more readable grammar than basic machine language, typically incorporating mnemonics in place of numeric codes for instructions or parameters. Consequently, it is significantly easier to be read by

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